I would like to acknowledge those whom without this research project would not have been possible.
First I owe a huge thank you to the staff members at the Lewis-Clark State College Campus Mail who were so kind to randomly deliver 240 surveys for me.
I also want to thank all those people who were kind enough to participate in the survey. I understand that they all were asked to take time out of their busy schedules to assist in this project and for that I am very grateful.
It is important that I acknowledge and thank the LCSC IRB for approving this project and seeing that it does have an importance to the study of communication. I would also like to thank Walla Walla Community College, Clarkston campus, its President Janet Danley, and all the instructors, for allowing me to distribute my survey to their classes. Last but not least I would like to thank TPC Holdings, INC., its publisher Nathan Alford, and Debbie Manwaring for allowing and assisting me in the distribution of my survey to its employees.
Saturday, May 9, 2009
ABSTRACT
With increasing news media outlets, audiences now can choose media that agrees with their ideology and tune out messages that do not reinforce their belief systems. Researchers such as Harold Laswell and Paul Lazarsfeld have decreed that media has a limited effect on its audience and that in fact, audiences choose their media based on cognitive dissonance (Stone; 1999). For the purpose of this research, a survey was developed to determine how people in the Lewiston-Clarkston Valley and its surrounding region choose news media.
INTRODUCTION
Media have been the subject of many studies; in particular the effect of media on their audiences has been of special interest to researchers in the field of Communications such as: Harold Lasswell and Paul Lazarsfeld. They are considered two of the fathers of Communications (Schramm; 1980). I, like these and other researchers, find interest in why we seek out certain media, how we use them and what benefits we get from media. As an employee at the local newspaper, and a believer in the need for the service that journalists provide to our society, I have become intrigued by news media consumption.
Early studies done by Harold Lasswell determined that media did have a strong influence on their audiences. He developed the Hypodermic Needle (also known as the magic bullet) Theory, which stated that media have a direct, immediate and powerful effect on their audiences (Journalism; 2003). This theory was widely held to be true in the 1940s and 1950s. Others, such as Paul Lazarsfeld, looked for other connections between media and their audiences. Lazarsfeld determined through his research that media had a limited effect on audiences. He developed the Limited Effects Paradigm after his extensive research. Limited Effects says that media have some effects on audiences, but they are limited to the opinion leader and direct receiver, and tend to be tied to preconceived beliefs of the audience members. He used this to develop what is known as the two-step flow of communication model (Stone; 1999). This brought Lazarsfeld’s research a step further, and he began working off Leon Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory, which was first identified in 1951 and says that messages that disagree with our personal belief system cause us discomfort. This theory was first adopted as a social psychology theory and was linked to the Selective Exposure Theory (Cognitive; 2004).
These theories will be used in this study to determine if in fact we as a society choose particular media because their messages reinforce the belief systems of their audience members. With growing technology, media have changed, and from these changes have come a multitude of messengers with an array of platforms. These changes have brought up new questions and perhaps new answers to old questions. With new technologies and more media being offered, audiences have more options, not only in the messages they receive but where they get those messages and in what form. The changing environment in mass media calls for research to be done to either substantiate developed theories or to come up with new ones to describe the media-audience relationship.
The purpose of my research is to determine if in fact there is a correlation between our personal belief systems and the media we consume, and the strength of that relationship. I will also look for a link between our educational level and the amount of news media we consume, as well as the level of satisfaction in available information to our news seeking habits.
Early studies done by Harold Lasswell determined that media did have a strong influence on their audiences. He developed the Hypodermic Needle (also known as the magic bullet) Theory, which stated that media have a direct, immediate and powerful effect on their audiences (Journalism; 2003). This theory was widely held to be true in the 1940s and 1950s. Others, such as Paul Lazarsfeld, looked for other connections between media and their audiences. Lazarsfeld determined through his research that media had a limited effect on audiences. He developed the Limited Effects Paradigm after his extensive research. Limited Effects says that media have some effects on audiences, but they are limited to the opinion leader and direct receiver, and tend to be tied to preconceived beliefs of the audience members. He used this to develop what is known as the two-step flow of communication model (Stone; 1999). This brought Lazarsfeld’s research a step further, and he began working off Leon Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory, which was first identified in 1951 and says that messages that disagree with our personal belief system cause us discomfort. This theory was first adopted as a social psychology theory and was linked to the Selective Exposure Theory (Cognitive; 2004).
These theories will be used in this study to determine if in fact we as a society choose particular media because their messages reinforce the belief systems of their audience members. With growing technology, media have changed, and from these changes have come a multitude of messengers with an array of platforms. These changes have brought up new questions and perhaps new answers to old questions. With new technologies and more media being offered, audiences have more options, not only in the messages they receive but where they get those messages and in what form. The changing environment in mass media calls for research to be done to either substantiate developed theories or to come up with new ones to describe the media-audience relationship.
The purpose of my research is to determine if in fact there is a correlation between our personal belief systems and the media we consume, and the strength of that relationship. I will also look for a link between our educational level and the amount of news media we consume, as well as the level of satisfaction in available information to our news seeking habits.
LITERATURE REVIEW - The Beginning of Media Effects Research
Many of the early mass media studies were done by or based on research done by Paul Lazarsfeld, who was known as one of the fathers of the Communications discipline. He began his career as a sociologist, but Lazarsfeld did a lot of the early Communications research. The theory of cognitive dissonance was developed by Leon Festinger in 1951, and has been the basis of several studies by researchers like Lazarsfeld. Festinger developed the theory after seeing widespread rumors in India of a coming disaster after a large earthquake had struck the area. He and his team determined that the rumor took root because it fulfilled the prophecy that came from an underlying fear in a majority of people and created a reduction in dissonance (Stone; 1999).
Cognitive dissonance took the place of earlier conditioning and reinforcement theories, and has been used and accepted by many disciplines. This theory sees individuals as purposely making decisions to achieve a balance in the information they take in and their preconceived ideas (Stone; 1999).
The theory claims that an uncomfortable psychological state motivates people to consciously and subconsciously alleviate the dissonance. It states that people will seek information that reinforces what they already believe to be true. Cognitive dissonance is also believed to be linked to self-esteem in relation to self-knowledge, self-reliance and morality (Stone; 1999).
When we compare this to the communication discipline’s theory of uses and gratifications, we find studies dating back to the 1940s by Lazarsfeld, who advanced both theories as well as the limited effects paradigm (Stone; 1999).
Cognitive dissonance took the place of earlier conditioning and reinforcement theories, and has been used and accepted by many disciplines. This theory sees individuals as purposely making decisions to achieve a balance in the information they take in and their preconceived ideas (Stone; 1999).
The theory claims that an uncomfortable psychological state motivates people to consciously and subconsciously alleviate the dissonance. It states that people will seek information that reinforces what they already believe to be true. Cognitive dissonance is also believed to be linked to self-esteem in relation to self-knowledge, self-reliance and morality (Stone; 1999).
When we compare this to the communication discipline’s theory of uses and gratifications, we find studies dating back to the 1940s by Lazarsfeld, who advanced both theories as well as the limited effects paradigm (Stone; 1999).
Cognitive Dissonance In A Limited Effects Paradigm
When looking at theory that was developed from or used to research mass media and its audience, we find that the cognitive dissonance theory and the uses and gratification theory, rely on self-report methods of research. Self-prophecy has been used in research for years and is believed to be accurate. Empirical studies of self-prophecy have examined commitment, attitudes, and dissonance, to find just how accurate self-reporting is in communication studies. Consumer behaviors have been studied to find predictors of behavior or attitude change. When identifying the reason self-prophecy works, we are led to believe it is directly linked to cognitive dissonance (Spangenberg; 2003). In other words, people tend to look for ways to alleviate negative psychological states on a subconscious level.
So we look at cognitive dissonance in the limited effects paradigm. Researchers have consistently found that in fact, media had little or no effect on viewer ideology and actions. In Paul Lazarsfeld’s study of voting decisions, which was commissioned by Franklin Delano Roosevelt after he decided to run for a third presidential term, the research showed voter decision for more than 600 voters. The study was conducted in Erie County, Ohio, (Encyclopedia; 2008). Lazarsfeld and his team found that media played only a small role in the candidates voters chose. In fact, eighty-one percent of voters did not make their choice based on media influence. The limited effects theory has been widely believed since the 1950s. Several studies testing media effects have been done since and it was of particular interest in the 1960s (Baran; 1995).
Lazarsfeld through his research made two important discoveries in communication theory. First, he developed the two-step flow model, which says that most of the media’s influence is found in the original audience (Encyclopedia; 2008). He determined through his research that only through opinion leaders can media influence their audiences, and that the influence is found in the first receivers of the message. This led him to develop the limited effects theory, which says that media effect is minimal and influenced by the existence of a variety of factors (Baran; 1995).
In another study done in 1954, Lazarsfeld and two other researchers found a similar trend as in the 1940 election. In this study, they researched the effects of media on 760 voters from Elmira, New York, in the 1948 election. Respondents were questioned about the way they were leaning in the election at three points, in June, August and October. The study found that only eight percent of the respondents changed their vote due to media influence. The researchers determined that while exposure to media sources is a factor, it merely reinforces the audience members’ personal ideology (Klapper; 1960).
For the purpose of this study I will investigate if in fact audiences seek media outlets that agree with their preconceived ideology instead of developing their ideas from the media they are exposed to. One difference today from Lazarsfeld's time is the number of choices audiences now have and the amount of exposure. In Lazarsfeld’s time, media exposure was limited and in essence could have had an effect on the results. With more options media’s influence may be wider in our society, which brings us to how we use media.
So we look at cognitive dissonance in the limited effects paradigm. Researchers have consistently found that in fact, media had little or no effect on viewer ideology and actions. In Paul Lazarsfeld’s study of voting decisions, which was commissioned by Franklin Delano Roosevelt after he decided to run for a third presidential term, the research showed voter decision for more than 600 voters. The study was conducted in Erie County, Ohio, (Encyclopedia; 2008). Lazarsfeld and his team found that media played only a small role in the candidates voters chose. In fact, eighty-one percent of voters did not make their choice based on media influence. The limited effects theory has been widely believed since the 1950s. Several studies testing media effects have been done since and it was of particular interest in the 1960s (Baran; 1995).
Lazarsfeld through his research made two important discoveries in communication theory. First, he developed the two-step flow model, which says that most of the media’s influence is found in the original audience (Encyclopedia; 2008). He determined through his research that only through opinion leaders can media influence their audiences, and that the influence is found in the first receivers of the message. This led him to develop the limited effects theory, which says that media effect is minimal and influenced by the existence of a variety of factors (Baran; 1995).
In another study done in 1954, Lazarsfeld and two other researchers found a similar trend as in the 1940 election. In this study, they researched the effects of media on 760 voters from Elmira, New York, in the 1948 election. Respondents were questioned about the way they were leaning in the election at three points, in June, August and October. The study found that only eight percent of the respondents changed their vote due to media influence. The researchers determined that while exposure to media sources is a factor, it merely reinforces the audience members’ personal ideology (Klapper; 1960).
For the purpose of this study I will investigate if in fact audiences seek media outlets that agree with their preconceived ideology instead of developing their ideas from the media they are exposed to. One difference today from Lazarsfeld's time is the number of choices audiences now have and the amount of exposure. In Lazarsfeld’s time, media exposure was limited and in essence could have had an effect on the results. With more options media’s influence may be wider in our society, which brings us to how we use media.
Media Use
In 1942, Frank Stanton, in collaboration with Lazarsfeld, published a group of books that investigated the way audiences use media and what they get from that use. Dennis McQuail found in 1987 that gratification is primary to the use of media (Baran; 1995). This can be linked to the idea that in order to relieve the discomfort caused by viewing media that consistently disagree with our own ideology, we will seek media that send messages that agree with us, making them easier to view. There is evidence to show that as a society we select our media just as we do our friends: We want to be surrounded by those who are like us and we want to be given messages that don’t offend our sensibilities.
Attitude Changes Among Consumers
Attitude change brought on by media cannot be examined without first looking at how consumers use media. In the uses and gratification theory, we see audiences as being in control of media selection and research media effect from the perspective of the audience. This theory is valuable in that it is applicable to many mediated communication theories like cognitive dissonance and selective exposure (Stone; 1999).
Studies done in the 1960s and 1970s on cognitive dissonance and consumer behavior were overwhelmingly based on attitude change as a measurement. Many studies have determined that dissonance can lead to the choosing of an alternative, depending on how much discomfort is felt. Conclusions were based on self-reports of the level of discomfort felt and the conflict brought about by the decision. A determination can be made in the validity of the theory based on the amount of evidence and the lack of challenges in its accuracy (Cummings; 1976).
Selective exposure theory was used in an analysis of the effect of Lyndon B. Johnson’s 1966 “State of the Union” address. In this study, researchers used 160 students enrolled in a basic speech class at Pennsylvania State University. The study identified key points and the students were asked their feelings on the points in the days before the speech. They were then questioned about those same key points following the event to see if Johnson’s speech had an effect on the student’s ideology. They found that while those listening to the president’s address and those choosing not to listen had significant differences in attitude on only one subject, there was support for the selective exposure theory. They did find, however, that the messenger had no effect on attitude change (McCroskey; 1967).
A study looking at self-prophecy in recycling habits, with a pre-, during and post-advertising campaign aspect, discovered that recycling increased after a marketing scheme was put into place (Spangenberg; 2003). This study shows that depending on the message, and audience agreement with that message, behaviors can be changed by media.
Thus far we’ve looked at cognitive dissonance theory and limited effects paradigm, as well as the uses and gratifications theory, and selective exposure theory. Now we turn to what creates dissonance and how that dissonance may cause changes in consumer behavior. To discover what creates dissonance, we must first look at how audiences interpret the messages they receive from media and how they use that information. Audiences that are active are believed to use media as a social tool. They will have conversations with others about things they see on a news program or a particular item they read about in the paper. These audience members feel empowered with knowledge when they can contribute to these sorts of conversations. Determining how the audience interprets the messages received from media can be done by measuring their responses to those messages. This has been used in several interpretive studies of audience responses, where respondents were classified in groups by their agreement or disagreement with a message (Carragee; 1990).
Studies done in the 1960s and 1970s on cognitive dissonance and consumer behavior were overwhelmingly based on attitude change as a measurement. Many studies have determined that dissonance can lead to the choosing of an alternative, depending on how much discomfort is felt. Conclusions were based on self-reports of the level of discomfort felt and the conflict brought about by the decision. A determination can be made in the validity of the theory based on the amount of evidence and the lack of challenges in its accuracy (Cummings; 1976).
Selective exposure theory was used in an analysis of the effect of Lyndon B. Johnson’s 1966 “State of the Union” address. In this study, researchers used 160 students enrolled in a basic speech class at Pennsylvania State University. The study identified key points and the students were asked their feelings on the points in the days before the speech. They were then questioned about those same key points following the event to see if Johnson’s speech had an effect on the student’s ideology. They found that while those listening to the president’s address and those choosing not to listen had significant differences in attitude on only one subject, there was support for the selective exposure theory. They did find, however, that the messenger had no effect on attitude change (McCroskey; 1967).
A study looking at self-prophecy in recycling habits, with a pre-, during and post-advertising campaign aspect, discovered that recycling increased after a marketing scheme was put into place (Spangenberg; 2003). This study shows that depending on the message, and audience agreement with that message, behaviors can be changed by media.
Thus far we’ve looked at cognitive dissonance theory and limited effects paradigm, as well as the uses and gratifications theory, and selective exposure theory. Now we turn to what creates dissonance and how that dissonance may cause changes in consumer behavior. To discover what creates dissonance, we must first look at how audiences interpret the messages they receive from media and how they use that information. Audiences that are active are believed to use media as a social tool. They will have conversations with others about things they see on a news program or a particular item they read about in the paper. These audience members feel empowered with knowledge when they can contribute to these sorts of conversations. Determining how the audience interprets the messages received from media can be done by measuring their responses to those messages. This has been used in several interpretive studies of audience responses, where respondents were classified in groups by their agreement or disagreement with a message (Carragee; 1990).
Liberal versus Conservative
So where does the research lead us? How has the theory progressed through time? In 1988, a study of how we identify with liberalism and conservatism was done by John P. Robinson and John A. Fleishman. The study used closed-ended questions that correlated ideology with moral issues. This is seen most clearly in presidential elections, but is not necessarily party affiliated. The study discovered that there is a difference in self-reports of being liberal or conservative versus being Democrat or Republican. Those who claim to be liberal or conservative have greater differences separating them than do those who identify themselves as Democrat or Republican when it comes to moral issues (Robinson; 1988).
On Television: FOX News, CNN and MSNBC
The Pew Research Center investigated the way society and media see liberalism and conservatism in the book Trends 2005. In chapter three, More Voices, Less Credibility, we see reference to a change in media that coincides with the public’s views. With so many choices available comes the ability to find a news source that will reinforce individual belief systems. The twenty-four-hour news channels, such as Fox News and CNN, are not only serving news that a particular audience finds appealing, they are doing so on a larger scale than the broadcast news of earlier generations. The audiences of these stations tend to lean one way or the other politically; a majority of those viewing Fox News are abundantly self-identified conservatives while those tuning in to CNN are often more liberal. Local daily papers, with the exception of their opinion pages, and broadcast news are less likely to make obvious leans to the left or right in most cases because their reach is much smaller, causing them to stay somewhere in the middle and cater to a broader audience. In the study done by Pew, thirty-five percent of self-proclaimed Republicans watch Fox News and twenty-eight percent of self-reported Democrats view CNN regularly (Trends; 2005).
While we as a society have more choices for news sources, as a group we tend to have less a news habit than we had just ten years before. Although news seeking is less of a priority for most Americans, it is not linked to the complaint of bias or inaccurate reporting. In contrast, most people claim they are not watching or reading much news because of a lack of time and increased responsibilities. Another reason people are not seeking news is their feelings of being uninformed about what is going on in the world. Those who are less educated are less likely to seek information, according to Pew Research. As choices in where we get our news have increased, choices in what messages those sources relay are fewer than ever, with many of the news outlets being owned by conglomerates (Trends; 2005).
This in part is related to the merging of news organizations, creating conglomerates. Fewer organizations than before are in charge of the majority of news we receive as a society. This creates fewer choices in messages. We also find there is a link in reduced media consumption to the increased media output. Society is becoming overwhelmed by media with the increase of messages everywhere citizens look. Technology has put news at the fingertips of society with increased speed (Campbell; 2007). Most people, though, simply relate the decrease in their media consumption to a lack of time.
In the book The Future of the Mass Audience, several arguments are made about the mass media audience, one of which is “the targeting argument.” This argument states that media are using data gathered from mailing lists and the like to format their messages and content to a particular segment of society. Another argument made is “the scope argument,” which says that with the increasing reach of media, local news has less of an effect or place in media consumption. The book also talks about the pluralism of today’s society. The book relates the concern that as media become more centralized to particular sections of society, as a group will become more fragmented. With magazines becoming more specialized and the same being true of cable networks, our society is in larger numbers becoming more segregated in its ideology (Neuman; 1991). The arguments made are backed by the sociological theory that we are a homogenized society.
Recent researchers have been interested in the exposure to biased or unbalanced news. At the top of the list are cable news channels like Fox News, CNN, and MSNBC. An article published in the American Journalism Review draws attention to the audiences of cable news channels. According to the report, Fox News, a conservative-leaning network, draws a larger audience than does its rival CNN, a more moderate network. The report makes claims about the networks’ ideologies by comparing anchors and presentation style. It assumes that it is in fact these styles that attract the audience that tends to tune in to each station (Farhi; 2003).
The report refers to a study conducted by ADT Research in 2002. In this study of the three cable news networks, formats were described in the following way: The research found CNN objectives were primarily in news gathering, paying more attention to top stories with less opinion from its anchors. It describes Fox News as touching quickly on more stories and inserting the opinion of anchors into the stories on a regular basis. MSNBC received less attention by the research but was said to be more liberal than CNN and depicted news in a style similar to that of Fox News. The study compared shows aired on the networks, interview styles of their anchors, as well as the flow of news shows in making these determinations (http://www.pbs.org).
While we as a society have more choices for news sources, as a group we tend to have less a news habit than we had just ten years before. Although news seeking is less of a priority for most Americans, it is not linked to the complaint of bias or inaccurate reporting. In contrast, most people claim they are not watching or reading much news because of a lack of time and increased responsibilities. Another reason people are not seeking news is their feelings of being uninformed about what is going on in the world. Those who are less educated are less likely to seek information, according to Pew Research. As choices in where we get our news have increased, choices in what messages those sources relay are fewer than ever, with many of the news outlets being owned by conglomerates (Trends; 2005).
This in part is related to the merging of news organizations, creating conglomerates. Fewer organizations than before are in charge of the majority of news we receive as a society. This creates fewer choices in messages. We also find there is a link in reduced media consumption to the increased media output. Society is becoming overwhelmed by media with the increase of messages everywhere citizens look. Technology has put news at the fingertips of society with increased speed (Campbell; 2007). Most people, though, simply relate the decrease in their media consumption to a lack of time.
In the book The Future of the Mass Audience, several arguments are made about the mass media audience, one of which is “the targeting argument.” This argument states that media are using data gathered from mailing lists and the like to format their messages and content to a particular segment of society. Another argument made is “the scope argument,” which says that with the increasing reach of media, local news has less of an effect or place in media consumption. The book also talks about the pluralism of today’s society. The book relates the concern that as media become more centralized to particular sections of society, as a group will become more fragmented. With magazines becoming more specialized and the same being true of cable networks, our society is in larger numbers becoming more segregated in its ideology (Neuman; 1991). The arguments made are backed by the sociological theory that we are a homogenized society.
Recent researchers have been interested in the exposure to biased or unbalanced news. At the top of the list are cable news channels like Fox News, CNN, and MSNBC. An article published in the American Journalism Review draws attention to the audiences of cable news channels. According to the report, Fox News, a conservative-leaning network, draws a larger audience than does its rival CNN, a more moderate network. The report makes claims about the networks’ ideologies by comparing anchors and presentation style. It assumes that it is in fact these styles that attract the audience that tends to tune in to each station (Farhi; 2003).
The report refers to a study conducted by ADT Research in 2002. In this study of the three cable news networks, formats were described in the following way: The research found CNN objectives were primarily in news gathering, paying more attention to top stories with less opinion from its anchors. It describes Fox News as touching quickly on more stories and inserting the opinion of anchors into the stories on a regular basis. MSNBC received less attention by the research but was said to be more liberal than CNN and depicted news in a style similar to that of Fox News. The study compared shows aired on the networks, interview styles of their anchors, as well as the flow of news shows in making these determinations (http://www.pbs.org).
Talk Radio
In other studies, the audiences of political talk radio have been examined by researchers in order to determine the effects particular shows have on their audiences. A study in 2001 looked for a link between exposure and attitude. It found that those who tune in to Rush Limbaugh tend to favor Republican candidates in elections, while those listening to a more liberal show such as those on Air America tend to prefer Democratic candidates. Predispositions of the listeners were determined to be a factor in which show they chose (Lee; 2001). People do not usually tune in to the Rush Limbaugh show if they have a liberal ideology, and those with conservative views choose to not listen to radio shows on Air America.
News Selection
So what makes us choose the news media we seek out regularly? In a 2006 study, Hans M. Kepplinger and Simone C. Ehmig looked at the selection process by applying the two-component theory of news selection. First, they examined what made news. The worthiness of a story and how much attention that story gets is important to how that story is relayed to the public, i.e. front page or inside, a two-minute segment or the lead story of the nightly news. These factors are important to how the public perceives the message. They used the findings from the news selection process to then predict messenger selection. The study found that there is a link between how a news story ranks and the reception of that information by the audience (Kepplinger; 2006). So we find that at least in part, the events of the day and how they are ranked by gatekeepers play a role in audience selection of a news outlet.
Knowing that much of the population is not actively seeking news media makes the motivations of those who do a special interest. What draws an audience to a particular media outlet? In a 2007 study, motivations of media use were investigated. This study conducted a survey on a national level to determine what drives media selection. The study found that there was a link to psychological needs being met by news intake and that those needs directed media selection. The study also determined that media exposure is a direct influence on how much the audience member learns from the message sent. The study also found that exposure is associated with interest in current events (David; 2007).
A factor in determining the ideology of particular media is the advertising they have. Advertising and market groups have spent a great deal of energy and money to determine audience participation and behavior.
One study in particular looked at the way advertisements are viewed by liberals and conservatives. This study believed that the same product can be advertised to all audiences but it must cater to the specific audience of each media outlet. Researchers came up with liberal and conservative ads for four different products. Conservative ads were based on more traditionally conservative attitudes with reference to Republican politicians and conservative journals. The liberal ads were based on attitudes widely accepted as being liberal with reference to liberal journals and Democratic politicians. The study hypothesized that liberals would view liberal ads more favorably and the same would be true for conservatives. The study found that this was not always true and that in fact the ads were viewed and processed the same by both sides, whether a liberal viewed a liberal ad or conservative ad, and the same was true for conservatives. It would seem that products are accepted on the merit of the product rather than the particular advertisement or the audience’s ideology (Hise; 1972).
Knowing that much of the population is not actively seeking news media makes the motivations of those who do a special interest. What draws an audience to a particular media outlet? In a 2007 study, motivations of media use were investigated. This study conducted a survey on a national level to determine what drives media selection. The study found that there was a link to psychological needs being met by news intake and that those needs directed media selection. The study also determined that media exposure is a direct influence on how much the audience member learns from the message sent. The study also found that exposure is associated with interest in current events (David; 2007).
A factor in determining the ideology of particular media is the advertising they have. Advertising and market groups have spent a great deal of energy and money to determine audience participation and behavior.
One study in particular looked at the way advertisements are viewed by liberals and conservatives. This study believed that the same product can be advertised to all audiences but it must cater to the specific audience of each media outlet. Researchers came up with liberal and conservative ads for four different products. Conservative ads were based on more traditionally conservative attitudes with reference to Republican politicians and conservative journals. The liberal ads were based on attitudes widely accepted as being liberal with reference to liberal journals and Democratic politicians. The study hypothesized that liberals would view liberal ads more favorably and the same would be true for conservatives. The study found that this was not always true and that in fact the ads were viewed and processed the same by both sides, whether a liberal viewed a liberal ad or conservative ad, and the same was true for conservatives. It would seem that products are accepted on the merit of the product rather than the particular advertisement or the audience’s ideology (Hise; 1972).
METHODOLGY - My Project
For the purpose of this study I will conduct a survey study in a convenience-based sampling. Through this survey I hope to determine what drives media choices, if education levels are a factor in that choice and how satisfied participants are with available news. I will administer the survey to college classes at Lewis-Clark State College, as well as Walla Walla Community College, Clarkston campus. I will also administer the survey to professors at both colleges as well as individuals working at TPC Holdings in Lewiston.
The questions that I hope to answer are:
RESEARCH QUESTION 1: Do we seek out specific news media that reinforce our opinions?
RESEARCH QUESTION 2: Is there a correlation in a person’s educational level and news-seeking habits?
RESEARCH QUESTION 3: Does our personal satisfaction in the available information have a correlation to our news seeking habits?
The questions that I hope to answer are:
RESEARCH QUESTION 1: Do we seek out specific news media that reinforce our opinions?
RESEARCH QUESTION 2: Is there a correlation in a person’s educational level and news-seeking habits?
RESEARCH QUESTION 3: Does our personal satisfaction in the available information have a correlation to our news seeking habits?
RESULTS - The Survey
I distributed 561 surveys in three locations to a convenience sample and received 350 responses. I used the responses to questions on the survey to determine patterns that would relate to my three research questions. Only some of the questions on the survey were used to answer the research questions.
Research Question 1
For the first research question - Do we seek out specific news media that reinforce our opinions? I used the question “Which group do you identify with?” as the control question and then looked at the answers to the questions asking which television networks they choose for their news, if they seek information that reinforces their own belief systems, and if the news media have any influence on the choices they make.
The top network viewed by those identifying themselves as conservative was Fox News with 60.6%; second was CNN with 30.3%. As discussed in the literature review, Fox News is seen as a network that intentionally stays to the right or more conservative point of view and CNN is closer to the middle of the road but leans to the left. Those identifying themselves as Republican said they also watch Fox News, with 46.8%; the second, with 38.3%, was CBS. Participants identifying themselves as moderates said they get their news from CNN, with 53.5% and 34.9%, watching both Fox News and CBS. Interestingly enough, participants identifying themselves as independent were closely split between four different networks: CBS received 47.4%; Fox News received 40.4%; ABC received 38.6%; and CNN received 36.8%. “Other” received 58.6% of the self-proclaimed liberals, with write-in answers such as BBC, PBS, no TV or doesn’t watch TV. The network with the highest percentage was CNN, with 37.9% of participants. Participants claiming to be Democrats tended to, in this study, watch more networks, with 44.7% choosing both CNN and CBS; 39.5% chose MSNBC; 32.9% chose NBC; and 31.6% chose ABC.
The next question on the survey that I examined to answer my first research question was “Do you seek out information that reinforces your own belief system?” I found the answers to this question particularly interesting knowing what I do about the different media outlets. The majority (59.6%) of all participants said they do not choose news outlets whose messages agree with their personal ideology. The breakdown was as follows: 54.5% of conservatives answered yes, they do choose news media that reinforce their personal belief system; while those saying no were Republicans (63.8%), moderates (62.8%), independents (63.2%), liberals (55.2%), and Democrats (54%). This tells me that cognitive dissonance may be on a subconscious level or at the very least unrecognized by the majority of this group.
Finally I examined the answer to the survey question “Do you feel that the news media you use has any influence on the choices you make?” The majority of participants said yes with 57.5%. Those who answered yes overwhelmingly said that they make decisions based on information they receive from the news they consume. One participant said this, “Example: I’m not eating pistachios!” Pistachios were recently found to have been contaminated with salmonella, which was widely reported on by news media. Others who answered yes had similar examples. Another popular example dealt with financial decisions that they are currently making.
So what do these answers tell us? Well, first there are some things that need to be considered, like the fact that the Lewiston-Clarkston Valley has one local station which happens to be a CBS affiliate. This may account for some of the participants choosing it because some places in this area do not get any other stations without cable or satellite. With that being said, let’s examine the trends: More conservatives and republicans watch Fox News than they do MSNBC or even CNN, and more liberals and Democrats watch CNN and MSNBC than they do Fox News or Fox. Knowing what we do about these news outlets we can safely say that cognitive dissonance is occurring on some level, whether it is subconsciously or consciously.
We also find that even with the majority of participants saying they do not seek out news outlets with similar ideology, many do recognize this behavior. On a side note, one participant who identified as a liberal would never watch the biased Fox News or Fox network but still does not seek information that reinforces a personal belief system. This tells me that cognitive dissonance could very well be subconscious. Participants do however recognize that news outlets have some influence on their decisions. So the answer to research question one, based on my research findings, is yes, we do seek specific news media that reinforce our opinions. Whether it is a conscious decision or a subconscious reaction to messages cannot be determined from my research and needs further investigation.
The top network viewed by those identifying themselves as conservative was Fox News with 60.6%; second was CNN with 30.3%. As discussed in the literature review, Fox News is seen as a network that intentionally stays to the right or more conservative point of view and CNN is closer to the middle of the road but leans to the left. Those identifying themselves as Republican said they also watch Fox News, with 46.8%; the second, with 38.3%, was CBS. Participants identifying themselves as moderates said they get their news from CNN, with 53.5% and 34.9%, watching both Fox News and CBS. Interestingly enough, participants identifying themselves as independent were closely split between four different networks: CBS received 47.4%; Fox News received 40.4%; ABC received 38.6%; and CNN received 36.8%. “Other” received 58.6% of the self-proclaimed liberals, with write-in answers such as BBC, PBS, no TV or doesn’t watch TV. The network with the highest percentage was CNN, with 37.9% of participants. Participants claiming to be Democrats tended to, in this study, watch more networks, with 44.7% choosing both CNN and CBS; 39.5% chose MSNBC; 32.9% chose NBC; and 31.6% chose ABC.
The next question on the survey that I examined to answer my first research question was “Do you seek out information that reinforces your own belief system?” I found the answers to this question particularly interesting knowing what I do about the different media outlets. The majority (59.6%) of all participants said they do not choose news outlets whose messages agree with their personal ideology. The breakdown was as follows: 54.5% of conservatives answered yes, they do choose news media that reinforce their personal belief system; while those saying no were Republicans (63.8%), moderates (62.8%), independents (63.2%), liberals (55.2%), and Democrats (54%). This tells me that cognitive dissonance may be on a subconscious level or at the very least unrecognized by the majority of this group.
Finally I examined the answer to the survey question “Do you feel that the news media you use has any influence on the choices you make?” The majority of participants said yes with 57.5%. Those who answered yes overwhelmingly said that they make decisions based on information they receive from the news they consume. One participant said this, “Example: I’m not eating pistachios!” Pistachios were recently found to have been contaminated with salmonella, which was widely reported on by news media. Others who answered yes had similar examples. Another popular example dealt with financial decisions that they are currently making.
So what do these answers tell us? Well, first there are some things that need to be considered, like the fact that the Lewiston-Clarkston Valley has one local station which happens to be a CBS affiliate. This may account for some of the participants choosing it because some places in this area do not get any other stations without cable or satellite. With that being said, let’s examine the trends: More conservatives and republicans watch Fox News than they do MSNBC or even CNN, and more liberals and Democrats watch CNN and MSNBC than they do Fox News or Fox. Knowing what we do about these news outlets we can safely say that cognitive dissonance is occurring on some level, whether it is subconsciously or consciously.
We also find that even with the majority of participants saying they do not seek out news outlets with similar ideology, many do recognize this behavior. On a side note, one participant who identified as a liberal would never watch the biased Fox News or Fox network but still does not seek information that reinforces a personal belief system. This tells me that cognitive dissonance could very well be subconscious. Participants do however recognize that news outlets have some influence on their decisions. So the answer to research question one, based on my research findings, is yes, we do seek specific news media that reinforce our opinions. Whether it is a conscious decision or a subconscious reaction to messages cannot be determined from my research and needs further investigation.
Research Question 2
When looking for an answer to my second research question -- Is there a correlation in a person's educational level and news seeking habits? -- I chose educational level as my control question and four other questions from the survey related to news-seeking habits in individuals to determine if there is in fact a difference between those with higher educational degrees and lower degrees. Participants, who chose “other” for this question, said they graduated from trade school or had earned educational certificates but no degree.
First I analyzed the answers given to the question “Do you actively seek out news? If so why?” The groups were those with a high school diploma/GED, some college, an associate’s degree, a bachelor's degree, a master's degree, a PhD or other. Across the board, the majority of each group said they did actively seek news, but with each higher degree of education, the percentage goes up. The break down is as follows: 53.3% of those with a diploma or GED answered yes, 62.3% with some college, 66.7% of those with an associate’s, 87.9% of those with a bachelor's degree, 97% with a masters degree, 97.1% of those with a PhD and 25% of those who checked “other” said they actively seek news. The majority of those answering yes said they want to be informed citizens and those who do not actively seek news said it was too biased or they claimed time constraints inhibited their news seeking. Some also said that the news was too depressing and/or negative.
The next survey question I looked at to determine if educational level plays a role in news habits was “On average, how much time do you spend consuming news per day?” The answers to this question may be tainted by the fact that a handful of individuals who took the survey work in the newsroom of the local paper. With that being said the response break down is as follows: 53.3% of those with a high school diploma or GED spend less than one hour per day seeking news and 46.7% seek between one and three hours of news per day; 58.6% of those with some college spend less than one hour seeking news, 39.1% spend one to three hours and 1.8% spend between four and six hours seeking news per day; 52.2% of participants with an associate’s degree seek less than an hour, 43.5% seek between one and three hours and 2.3% seek ten or more hours of news each day; 30.4% of those with bachelor's degrees seek less than one hour of news, 58.9% seek between one and three hours, 5.4% seek four to six hours, 3.6% seek seven to nine hours and 1.8% seek ten or more hours of news on average per day; 35.3% of participants with master's degrees view less than one hour of news, 55.9% view between one and three hours and 8.8% seek four to six hours of news a day; 32.4% of survey takers with a PhD seek less than an hour of news, 61.8% seek one to three hours and 5.9% seek four to six hours; 100% of participants choosing other view less than one hour of news each day.
My next survey question to analyze for the answer to research question two was “How do you get your news when you do seek it out?” With this question, participants could choose all that applied to them. The choices were TV, radio, newspaper, Internet, magazines and other. Survey takers with a high school diploma or GED overwhelmingly get their news from TV (86.7%); the top three answers for those with some college were TV (77.8%), Internet (76.1%), and newspaper (64.1%); the top three for those with an associate’s were Internet (70.8%), TV (66.6%), and newspaper (58.3%); for those with a bachelor's the top three were newspaper and Internet (81%) and TV (70.7%); participants with a master's get their news from these sources, Internet (97%), newspaper and TV (87.9%), and radio (69.7%); PhD participants' top answers were newspaper (82.4%), Internet and radio (73.5%), and TV (67.6%); those who chose “other” for their educational level get their news from TV and newspaper (100%) and from Internet (75%).
The fourth question I used was “What type of information do you seek when viewing news?” I do believe that the state of our economy, just coming out of a long election process and the current wars, may have inflated the responses to this question a bit. The choices were international, national, state, local, sports, financial and other. National and local news were evenly sought out by those with a diploma or GED (53.3%); participants with some college said local news (68.9%) was their first choice and international news (50.3%) was second; those with an associate’s said local news (70.8%) was their first priority and state (50%) was second; survey takers with a bachelor’s degree chose national news (81%) as their number one concern, local (77.6%) as second, state (62.1%) third and international (55.2%) fourth; participants with a master’s degree also chose national (97%) as their first priority, local (78.8%) as second, international (72.7%) third and state (63.6%) fourth; those with a PhD had national (97.1%) as their first news interest, international (88.2%) as second, state (79.4%) third, local news (70.6%) fourth and financial (61.8%) as fifth; participants who chose other as their educational level said that local news (100%) was first choice, state (75%) was second; and international, national and financial (50%) was last.
This information does show a difference in news-seeking habits between those with lower educational levels and higher educational levels. This research project seems to point to a correlation between those with higher degrees and news-seeking habits so I conclude that the answer to my second research question is yes.
First I analyzed the answers given to the question “Do you actively seek out news? If so why?” The groups were those with a high school diploma/GED, some college, an associate’s degree, a bachelor's degree, a master's degree, a PhD or other. Across the board, the majority of each group said they did actively seek news, but with each higher degree of education, the percentage goes up. The break down is as follows: 53.3% of those with a diploma or GED answered yes, 62.3% with some college, 66.7% of those with an associate’s, 87.9% of those with a bachelor's degree, 97% with a masters degree, 97.1% of those with a PhD and 25% of those who checked “other” said they actively seek news. The majority of those answering yes said they want to be informed citizens and those who do not actively seek news said it was too biased or they claimed time constraints inhibited their news seeking. Some also said that the news was too depressing and/or negative.
The next survey question I looked at to determine if educational level plays a role in news habits was “On average, how much time do you spend consuming news per day?” The answers to this question may be tainted by the fact that a handful of individuals who took the survey work in the newsroom of the local paper. With that being said the response break down is as follows: 53.3% of those with a high school diploma or GED spend less than one hour per day seeking news and 46.7% seek between one and three hours of news per day; 58.6% of those with some college spend less than one hour seeking news, 39.1% spend one to three hours and 1.8% spend between four and six hours seeking news per day; 52.2% of participants with an associate’s degree seek less than an hour, 43.5% seek between one and three hours and 2.3% seek ten or more hours of news each day; 30.4% of those with bachelor's degrees seek less than one hour of news, 58.9% seek between one and three hours, 5.4% seek four to six hours, 3.6% seek seven to nine hours and 1.8% seek ten or more hours of news on average per day; 35.3% of participants with master's degrees view less than one hour of news, 55.9% view between one and three hours and 8.8% seek four to six hours of news a day; 32.4% of survey takers with a PhD seek less than an hour of news, 61.8% seek one to three hours and 5.9% seek four to six hours; 100% of participants choosing other view less than one hour of news each day.
My next survey question to analyze for the answer to research question two was “How do you get your news when you do seek it out?” With this question, participants could choose all that applied to them. The choices were TV, radio, newspaper, Internet, magazines and other. Survey takers with a high school diploma or GED overwhelmingly get their news from TV (86.7%); the top three answers for those with some college were TV (77.8%), Internet (76.1%), and newspaper (64.1%); the top three for those with an associate’s were Internet (70.8%), TV (66.6%), and newspaper (58.3%); for those with a bachelor's the top three were newspaper and Internet (81%) and TV (70.7%); participants with a master's get their news from these sources, Internet (97%), newspaper and TV (87.9%), and radio (69.7%); PhD participants' top answers were newspaper (82.4%), Internet and radio (73.5%), and TV (67.6%); those who chose “other” for their educational level get their news from TV and newspaper (100%) and from Internet (75%).
The fourth question I used was “What type of information do you seek when viewing news?” I do believe that the state of our economy, just coming out of a long election process and the current wars, may have inflated the responses to this question a bit. The choices were international, national, state, local, sports, financial and other. National and local news were evenly sought out by those with a diploma or GED (53.3%); participants with some college said local news (68.9%) was their first choice and international news (50.3%) was second; those with an associate’s said local news (70.8%) was their first priority and state (50%) was second; survey takers with a bachelor’s degree chose national news (81%) as their number one concern, local (77.6%) as second, state (62.1%) third and international (55.2%) fourth; participants with a master’s degree also chose national (97%) as their first priority, local (78.8%) as second, international (72.7%) third and state (63.6%) fourth; those with a PhD had national (97.1%) as their first news interest, international (88.2%) as second, state (79.4%) third, local news (70.6%) fourth and financial (61.8%) as fifth; participants who chose other as their educational level said that local news (100%) was first choice, state (75%) was second; and international, national and financial (50%) was last.
This information does show a difference in news-seeking habits between those with lower educational levels and higher educational levels. This research project seems to point to a correlation between those with higher degrees and news-seeking habits so I conclude that the answer to my second research question is yes.
Research Question 3
My third research question: Does our personal satisfaction in the available information have a correlation to our news-seeking habits? This question can be answered by many of the same survey questions as my second research question. The control question I used was “On a scale of 1 to 10 with 10 being highly satisfied rate your level of satisfaction with the number of choices there are in news media.”
First, I examined their satisfaction in comparison to whether they actively seek news or not. As discussed above, the majority of survey takers do actively seek news, however when compared to the level of satisfaction in the number of sources available, we find that those who rank their satisfaction from one to five have fewer individuals seeking news. The percentages are as follows: one (50%), two (66.7%), three (52.9%), four (68.4%), five (54.8%), six (76.5%), seven (77.6%), eight (82.1%), nine (76.2%) and ten (78.2%) actively seek out news.
Next, I compared the average amount of time per day spent seeking news with level of satisfaction. 100% of those who rated their satisfaction a one spend less than an hour seeking news each day. 83.3% of participants rating their satisfaction a two spend less than an hour seeking news. 52.9% of those with a satisfaction rating of three spend between one and three hours seeking news each day. 52.6% of those giving their satisfaction a rating of four seek news one to three hours per day. 90.6% of survey takers who said their satisfaction level was a five spend less than one hour seeking news. 51.5% with a satisfaction level of six said they seek out news less than one hour per day. 58.6% of participants who said they had a satisfaction level of seven seek out news between one and three hours in a day. 50% of those participants giving their satisfaction levels as eight or ten spend between one and three hours seeking news, and participants with a level nine satisfaction split evenly at 47.6% spending less than an hour and 47.6% spending one to three hours seeking news.
I then examined level of satisfaction in comparison to how truthful individuals believe their news sources are. Most participants said they believed the news source they used was truthful. The two highest numbers were those with a satisfaction level and a truthfulness level of eight with 33 participants next was those with a satisfaction and truthfulness level of seven with 20 participants.
I would not say that there is a direct link between level of satisfaction and news-seeking habits but I would also not rule it out. My research findings lean toward a correlation, but I think the matter needs more research.
First, I examined their satisfaction in comparison to whether they actively seek news or not. As discussed above, the majority of survey takers do actively seek news, however when compared to the level of satisfaction in the number of sources available, we find that those who rank their satisfaction from one to five have fewer individuals seeking news. The percentages are as follows: one (50%), two (66.7%), three (52.9%), four (68.4%), five (54.8%), six (76.5%), seven (77.6%), eight (82.1%), nine (76.2%) and ten (78.2%) actively seek out news.
Next, I compared the average amount of time per day spent seeking news with level of satisfaction. 100% of those who rated their satisfaction a one spend less than an hour seeking news each day. 83.3% of participants rating their satisfaction a two spend less than an hour seeking news. 52.9% of those with a satisfaction rating of three spend between one and three hours seeking news each day. 52.6% of those giving their satisfaction a rating of four seek news one to three hours per day. 90.6% of survey takers who said their satisfaction level was a five spend less than one hour seeking news. 51.5% with a satisfaction level of six said they seek out news less than one hour per day. 58.6% of participants who said they had a satisfaction level of seven seek out news between one and three hours in a day. 50% of those participants giving their satisfaction levels as eight or ten spend between one and three hours seeking news, and participants with a level nine satisfaction split evenly at 47.6% spending less than an hour and 47.6% spending one to three hours seeking news.
I then examined level of satisfaction in comparison to how truthful individuals believe their news sources are. Most participants said they believed the news source they used was truthful. The two highest numbers were those with a satisfaction level and a truthfulness level of eight with 33 participants next was those with a satisfaction and truthfulness level of seven with 20 participants.
I would not say that there is a direct link between level of satisfaction and news-seeking habits but I would also not rule it out. My research findings lean toward a correlation, but I think the matter needs more research.
The Answers To My Research Questions
To recap, my first research question was answered with a yes and my suspicions that ideology plays a part in where we get our news was proven by my research. My second research question was also answered with a yes, showing that there is a correlation between educational levels and news-seeking habits. As for my third research question, I determine my research findings to be inconclusive and not able to answer the question without further investigation.
Survey Extras
Some of the most interesting and important information I received from my survey came from the open-ended questions. I felt it was important to share some of these answers in this paper because they speak volumes to how citizens view news in general. It doesn't have a direct link to my research questions but does relate to news media consumption.
One participant expanded on an answer to the question “How much have your news seeking habits changed in the last five years?” He chose “not at all” and followed by saying, “I don't seek out more. The way I seek it has changed slightly because of the Internet.” I found this interesting because while I was working on my research, two newspapers, one in Denver and one in Seattle, closed, and this is in part because of how people are now seeking news. The Seattle paper chose to move from a print edition to an on-line edition only and the Denver paper completely closed its doors. Many other papers in the past few months have changed printing schedules and limited circulations as many more have fear of closing any day. This industry, just as many other industries, is struggling to survey in a new world.
I also asked participants what their biggest complaint about news media was on a national level and on a local level. One participant had this to say about national news media: “It dances for a master. There is no true news when money is involved. There is a slant on everything.” While this is true, I must wonder if there is a solution. I mean these companies have expenses the same as any business and with the emerging 24-hour news sources each having their own agenda and platform, is it not still possible to get real news from a corporate source?
My last question on the survey was “Do you have anything else to say about news media?” To this question I received a multitude of answers but three in particular stood out to me.
“We have many news sources. In the end, it's up to us (the consumer) to make informed choices and make our own decisions/form our own opinions. Media is a product - buyer beware!”
“It is poorer than 30 years ago even though we have so much technology. Maybe because of that we look more to putting a ‘face’ on news as opposed to finding facts.”
“It would be nice to find a media outlet that would take a humanistic approach and not follow the 'if it bleeds, it leads' mantra.”
One participant expanded on an answer to the question “How much have your news seeking habits changed in the last five years?” He chose “not at all” and followed by saying, “I don't seek out more. The way I seek it has changed slightly because of the Internet.” I found this interesting because while I was working on my research, two newspapers, one in Denver and one in Seattle, closed, and this is in part because of how people are now seeking news. The Seattle paper chose to move from a print edition to an on-line edition only and the Denver paper completely closed its doors. Many other papers in the past few months have changed printing schedules and limited circulations as many more have fear of closing any day. This industry, just as many other industries, is struggling to survey in a new world.
I also asked participants what their biggest complaint about news media was on a national level and on a local level. One participant had this to say about national news media: “It dances for a master. There is no true news when money is involved. There is a slant on everything.” While this is true, I must wonder if there is a solution. I mean these companies have expenses the same as any business and with the emerging 24-hour news sources each having their own agenda and platform, is it not still possible to get real news from a corporate source?
My last question on the survey was “Do you have anything else to say about news media?” To this question I received a multitude of answers but three in particular stood out to me.
“We have many news sources. In the end, it's up to us (the consumer) to make informed choices and make our own decisions/form our own opinions. Media is a product - buyer beware!”
“It is poorer than 30 years ago even though we have so much technology. Maybe because of that we look more to putting a ‘face’ on news as opposed to finding facts.”
“It would be nice to find a media outlet that would take a humanistic approach and not follow the 'if it bleeds, it leads' mantra.”
CONCLUSION - Research
Media, for more than half a century now, have been the subject of research done by masters in sociology, psychology, communications and other disciplines. Many aspects of media have been researched, from how they affect our gender identity to how they affect our cultural identity, from how much influence they have on individuals to what kind of influence they have on individuals. Every medium has in some degree been the subject of its own study, from movies to television to radio, magazines to newspapers, from video games to Internet to cell phones. We are a media-driven society, and there are both positive and negative aspects to it. Media will continue to be researched and as they change with technology, so may the results of that research.
The early days of media research has given future researchers a multitude of data and theories to work with as the research continues. I, for one, am grateful to such researchers as Harold Lasswell, Paul Lazarsfeld, Leon Festinger and Frank Stanton for providing a firm foundation on which future research, like mine, can stand and be built.
The early days of media research has given future researchers a multitude of data and theories to work with as the research continues. I, for one, am grateful to such researchers as Harold Lasswell, Paul Lazarsfeld, Leon Festinger and Frank Stanton for providing a firm foundation on which future research, like mine, can stand and be built.
My Literature Review
In my literature review, we found evidence that as the research progressed through time, the theories of cognitive dissonance and selective exposure stood up and that media consumers did feel more at ease when receiving messages that reinforced their own belief systems and personal ideology. We also saw that the uses and gratifications theory applied because consumers have a need filled by the media they consume, whether that need is what movie to see, what car to buy, the new hip phrase or to be an informed citizen, the consumer must get something out of it to make it desirable.
We also examined the research done on the new merging type of news media today. Technology plays a part, with news being more readily available and sources building platforms based on their viewer's ideological stance, as well as not having to have a degree in journalism or a related field. Blogs are an up-and-coming new source for news consumers, and this can be problematic. With no gatekeepers or checks and balances for those putting out blogs, an array of misinformation is being disguised as news. News media are changing, and consumers are changing too. Everything is moving at a rapid pace and those who do not keep up will disappear.
We also examined the research done on the new merging type of news media today. Technology plays a part, with news being more readily available and sources building platforms based on their viewer's ideological stance, as well as not having to have a degree in journalism or a related field. Blogs are an up-and-coming new source for news consumers, and this can be problematic. With no gatekeepers or checks and balances for those putting out blogs, an array of misinformation is being disguised as news. News media are changing, and consumers are changing too. Everything is moving at a rapid pace and those who do not keep up will disappear.
My Research
My research did more for me than just answer my three research questions; it gave me a new understanding for the news consumer. Many participants reiterated that too much of the news was negative and depressing. This may be I too once believed that and still do to some degree, but the fact is that news media outlets must also make money to stay in business, and working at the local paper, I have learned that while as a society we say we would rather not hear all the bad, it's like a train wreck: You don't want to look but you can't stop yourself. Each day there is some feature or happy news story in the paper and when you look at the top-read stories on line it is assuredly the one with the most human tragedy. Sad but true.
My research found correlations in ideology and chosen news outlets as well as educational levels and satisfaction in news availability. There was not a direct link to satisfaction level and news-seeking habits that I found in my research, and this may not exist, but I believe more research is needed to determine either way. I also now, having completed my survey research, wish that I had asked a few things that I did not think of and realize that a few of the questions that I did ask were unnecessary. I would like to come back to this research and build upon it in the future because I believe where and how we get our news is an extremely important subject that directly affects each person’s life. I believe ignorance can create decay in any society.
My research found correlations in ideology and chosen news outlets as well as educational levels and satisfaction in news availability. There was not a direct link to satisfaction level and news-seeking habits that I found in my research, and this may not exist, but I believe more research is needed to determine either way. I also now, having completed my survey research, wish that I had asked a few things that I did not think of and realize that a few of the questions that I did ask were unnecessary. I would like to come back to this research and build upon it in the future because I believe where and how we get our news is an extremely important subject that directly affects each person’s life. I believe ignorance can create decay in any society.
Appendix A - Participant Consent
Red Media Blue Media:
Media Consumption in a Divided Society
Peggy J. Hayden
Hi my name is Peggy Hayden and I am a senior at Lewis-Clark State College majoring in communications, as part of my program I am required to complete a communication research project. Because of my current employment, and interest in news I have chosen to research how and why we consume news media. Your participation in this project is anonymous and completely voluntary it will take about 15 minutes to complete a survey on the subject. This form should be detached from the survey and taken with you. The study is important to the way we consume and use news media. It will determine how audiences choose news.
Please answer all questions to the best of your ability but feel free to leave blank the questions that either do not apply to you or that make you uncomfortable. Once the survey is complete please hand it in. YOU DO NOT NEED TO WRITE YOUR NAME ON THE SURVEY.
You may ask questions at any time. If you have additional questions regarding your participant rights, you may contact my faculty research advisor Dr. Tim Doty at (208) 792-2905 or the Institutional Review Board of LCSC at (208) 792-2276. Participants can obtain the research results at http://redmediabluemedia.blogspot.com.
I understand that by completing and returning this survey I am giving my consent for the answers given to be used in the research. I also understand that it is my right at any time to stop answering questions; I further understand that I will not personally be identified in the results but that my answers will be used to determine trends in media use.
Media Consumption in a Divided Society
Peggy J. Hayden
Hi my name is Peggy Hayden and I am a senior at Lewis-Clark State College majoring in communications, as part of my program I am required to complete a communication research project. Because of my current employment, and interest in news I have chosen to research how and why we consume news media. Your participation in this project is anonymous and completely voluntary it will take about 15 minutes to complete a survey on the subject. This form should be detached from the survey and taken with you. The study is important to the way we consume and use news media. It will determine how audiences choose news.
Please answer all questions to the best of your ability but feel free to leave blank the questions that either do not apply to you or that make you uncomfortable. Once the survey is complete please hand it in. YOU DO NOT NEED TO WRITE YOUR NAME ON THE SURVEY.
You may ask questions at any time. If you have additional questions regarding your participant rights, you may contact my faculty research advisor Dr. Tim Doty at (208) 792-2905 or the Institutional Review Board of LCSC at (208) 792-2276. Participants can obtain the research results at http://redmediabluemedia.blogspot.com.
I understand that by completing and returning this survey I am giving my consent for the answers given to be used in the research. I also understand that it is my right at any time to stop answering questions; I further understand that I will not personally be identified in the results but that my answers will be used to determine trends in media use.
Appendix B - The Survey
Gender
___Male ___Female
Age group
___18-25 ___26-35 ___36-45 ___46-55 ___56+
Educational level
___High School/Equivalent ___Some College _____Associates Degree
___Bachelors Degree ___Masters Degree ___PhD
___Other, explain:
Which group do you identify with?
___Conservative ___Republican ___Moderate ___ Independent
___Liberal ___Democrat
___Other, explain:
Do you actively seek out news? If so why?
On Average, how much time do you spend consuming news per day?
How do you get your news when you do seek it out? (choose all that apply)
___Television ___Radio ___Newspaper ___Internet ___Magazine ___Other, explain:
What motivates you to get your news from these sources? (choose all that apply)
___convenience ___habit ___trust in source
___other; explain:
How do you use the information you gain from your news source? (choose all that apply)
___Personal knowledge/stay informed ___As conversation topic
___For professional purposes ___Other, explain:
Which television networks do you most often tune into for news? (choose all that apply)
___Fox News ___CNN ___MSNBC ___ABC ___NBC ___CBS ___Fox ___Other, explain:
On a scale of 1 to 10 with 10 being highly satisfied rate your level of satisfaction with the number of choices there are in news media:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rate how truthful the news media you seek out is with 10 being very truthful?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Do you subscribe to the local newspaper? If not, why?
___Yes ___No
Do you discuss current events in social settings?
___Yes ___No
How much have your news seeking habits changed in last 5 years?
___Not at all ___Seek out more ___Seek out less
Do you seek out information that reinforces your own belief system?
___Yes ___No
On a scale of 1 to 10 how liberal would you say mainstream media is if 10 is very liberal and 1 is not liberal.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rate how biased you believe mainstream media is if 10 is very biased and 1 is not at all.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
What type of information do you seek when viewing news? (choose all that apply)
___International politics and news ___National politics and news ___State politics and news ___Local politics and news ___Sports
___Financial news ___Other, explain:
What is your biggest complaint about news media on a national level?
What is your biggest complaint about news media on a local level?
Do you feel that the news media you use has any influence on the choices you make?
___Yes ___No
Explain:
In 2008 what has been the ONE issue you have sought out the most information about?
___Presidential Election ___Climate Change
___Financial Collapse/Recession ___Iraq/Afghanistan
___Same Sex Marriage ___Gas Prices ___Olympics ____Other:
Do you have anything else you would like to say about news media?
Thank you again for your time and participation. Peggy Hayden
___Male ___Female
Age group
___18-25 ___26-35 ___36-45 ___46-55 ___56+
Educational level
___High School/Equivalent ___Some College _____Associates Degree
___Bachelors Degree ___Masters Degree ___PhD
___Other, explain:
Which group do you identify with?
___Conservative ___Republican ___Moderate ___ Independent
___Liberal ___Democrat
___Other, explain:
Do you actively seek out news? If so why?
On Average, how much time do you spend consuming news per day?
How do you get your news when you do seek it out? (choose all that apply)
___Television ___Radio ___Newspaper ___Internet ___Magazine ___Other, explain:
What motivates you to get your news from these sources? (choose all that apply)
___convenience ___habit ___trust in source
___other; explain:
How do you use the information you gain from your news source? (choose all that apply)
___Personal knowledge/stay informed ___As conversation topic
___For professional purposes ___Other, explain:
Which television networks do you most often tune into for news? (choose all that apply)
___Fox News ___CNN ___MSNBC ___ABC ___NBC ___CBS ___Fox ___Other, explain:
On a scale of 1 to 10 with 10 being highly satisfied rate your level of satisfaction with the number of choices there are in news media:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rate how truthful the news media you seek out is with 10 being very truthful?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Do you subscribe to the local newspaper? If not, why?
___Yes ___No
Do you discuss current events in social settings?
___Yes ___No
How much have your news seeking habits changed in last 5 years?
___Not at all ___Seek out more ___Seek out less
Do you seek out information that reinforces your own belief system?
___Yes ___No
On a scale of 1 to 10 how liberal would you say mainstream media is if 10 is very liberal and 1 is not liberal.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rate how biased you believe mainstream media is if 10 is very biased and 1 is not at all.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
What type of information do you seek when viewing news? (choose all that apply)
___International politics and news ___National politics and news ___State politics and news ___Local politics and news ___Sports
___Financial news ___Other, explain:
What is your biggest complaint about news media on a national level?
What is your biggest complaint about news media on a local level?
Do you feel that the news media you use has any influence on the choices you make?
___Yes ___No
Explain:
In 2008 what has been the ONE issue you have sought out the most information about?
___Presidential Election ___Climate Change
___Financial Collapse/Recession ___Iraq/Afghanistan
___Same Sex Marriage ___Gas Prices ___Olympics ____Other:
Do you have anything else you would like to say about news media?
Thank you again for your time and participation. Peggy Hayden
RESOURCES
Baran, S.J., Davis, D.K. (1995). Mass Communication Theory: Foundations,
Ferment, and Future. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, CA., 14; 110; 212; 219.
Cable News Wars: Content Analysis. (2002). The Online NewsHour: research by
ADT Research. Retrieved November 11, 2008, from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/media/cablenews/textonly.html.
Campbell, R., Martin, C.R., Fabos, B. (2007). Media & Culture: an introduction to
Mass communication. Bedford/St. Martin’s Publishing, 5th edition, chs. 13
14: 454-509.
Carragee, K.M. (June 1990). Interpretive Media Study and Interpretive Social
Science. Critical Studies I Mass Communication, 7 (2), 81-96.
Cognitive Dissonance. http://tip.psychology.org/festing.html, accessed Feb. 26, 2009.
Cummings, W.H., Venkatesan, M. (August 1976). Cognitive Dissonance and
Consumer Behavior: A Review of the Evidence. Journal of Marketing Reseach, XIII, 303-308.
David, C. (2007). Learning Political Information From The News: A Closer Look At
The Role Of Motivation. Conference Papers – International
Communications Association Annual Conference.
Farhi, P. (April 2003). Everybody Wins. American Journalism Review, 32-36.
Hise, R.T. (December 1972). How Liberals and Conservatives View Ads. Journal
Of Advertising Research, 12 (6), 38-42.
Kepplinger, H.M., Ehmig, S.C. (2006). Predicting news decisions. An empirical
test of the two-component theory of news selection. Communications, 31, 25-43.
Klapper, J.T. (1960). The Effects of Mass Communications. The Free Press Corp,
Toronto, Canada. Ch. 1: 15-16.
Lee, G., Cappella, J.N. (2001). The Effects Of Political Talk Radio On Political Attitude
Formation: Exposure Versus Knowledge. Political Communication, 18;
369-394.
McCroskey, J.C., Prichard, S.V.O. (1967). Selective-Exposure And Lyndon B. Johnson’s
1966 “State Of The Union” Address. Journal of Broadcasting, 11 p. 331-337.
Neuman, W.R. (1991). The Future Of The Mass Audience. Press Syndicate of
The University of Cambridge. Ch. 3 and 6; 83-84, 166-167.
New World Encyclopedia (2008). Lazarsfeld, Paul.
www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Paul_Lazarsfeld.
Last modified April 3, 2008; Accessed December 7, 2008.
Robinson, J.P., Fleishman, J.A. (1988). Ideological Identification: Trends And
Interpretations Of The Liberal-Conservative Balance. Public Opinion
Quarterly, 52, 134-145.
Schramm, W. (1980) The Beginnings of Communication Study in the United
States. Communication Dec., 9 (2) p. 1.
Sprangenberg, E.R., Sprott, D.E., Grohmann, B., and Smith, R.J. (July 2003).
Mass-Communicated Prediction Requests: Practical Application and a
Cognitive Dissonance Explanation for Self-Prophecy. Journal of Marketing,
67, 47-62.
Stone, G., Singletary, M., Richmond, V.P. (1999). Clarifying Communication
Theories: A Hands-On Approach. Iowa State University Press/Ames, chs.
21 and 23: 181-189 and 199-208.
Trends 2005. (January 2005). Pew research Center, ch. 3, 41-55.
Ferment, and Future. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, CA., 14; 110; 212; 219.
Cable News Wars: Content Analysis. (2002). The Online NewsHour: research by
ADT Research. Retrieved November 11, 2008, from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/media/cablenews/textonly.html.
Campbell, R., Martin, C.R., Fabos, B. (2007). Media & Culture: an introduction to
Mass communication. Bedford/St. Martin’s Publishing, 5th edition, chs. 13
14: 454-509.
Carragee, K.M. (June 1990). Interpretive Media Study and Interpretive Social
Science. Critical Studies I Mass Communication, 7 (2), 81-96.
Cognitive Dissonance. http://tip.psychology.org/festing.html, accessed Feb. 26, 2009.
Cummings, W.H., Venkatesan, M. (August 1976). Cognitive Dissonance and
Consumer Behavior: A Review of the Evidence. Journal of Marketing Reseach, XIII, 303-308.
David, C. (2007). Learning Political Information From The News: A Closer Look At
The Role Of Motivation. Conference Papers – International
Communications Association Annual Conference.
Farhi, P. (April 2003). Everybody Wins. American Journalism Review, 32-36.
Hise, R.T. (December 1972). How Liberals and Conservatives View Ads. Journal
Of Advertising Research, 12 (6), 38-42.
Kepplinger, H.M., Ehmig, S.C. (2006). Predicting news decisions. An empirical
test of the two-component theory of news selection. Communications, 31, 25-43.
Klapper, J.T. (1960). The Effects of Mass Communications. The Free Press Corp,
Toronto, Canada. Ch. 1: 15-16.
Lee, G., Cappella, J.N. (2001). The Effects Of Political Talk Radio On Political Attitude
Formation: Exposure Versus Knowledge. Political Communication, 18;
369-394.
McCroskey, J.C., Prichard, S.V.O. (1967). Selective-Exposure And Lyndon B. Johnson’s
1966 “State Of The Union” Address. Journal of Broadcasting, 11 p. 331-337.
Neuman, W.R. (1991). The Future Of The Mass Audience. Press Syndicate of
The University of Cambridge. Ch. 3 and 6; 83-84, 166-167.
New World Encyclopedia (2008). Lazarsfeld, Paul.
www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Paul_Lazarsfeld.
Last modified April 3, 2008; Accessed December 7, 2008.
Robinson, J.P., Fleishman, J.A. (1988). Ideological Identification: Trends And
Interpretations Of The Liberal-Conservative Balance. Public Opinion
Quarterly, 52, 134-145.
Schramm, W. (1980) The Beginnings of Communication Study in the United
States. Communication Dec., 9 (2) p. 1.
Sprangenberg, E.R., Sprott, D.E., Grohmann, B., and Smith, R.J. (July 2003).
Mass-Communicated Prediction Requests: Practical Application and a
Cognitive Dissonance Explanation for Self-Prophecy. Journal of Marketing,
67, 47-62.
Stone, G., Singletary, M., Richmond, V.P. (1999). Clarifying Communication
Theories: A Hands-On Approach. Iowa State University Press/Ames, chs.
21 and 23: 181-189 and 199-208.
Trends 2005. (January 2005). Pew research Center, ch. 3, 41-55.
Wednesday, April 22, 2009
Survey success
Out of the 561 surveys I distributed I received 350 replies for a 62.3% response rate!!! I only expected about a 30% response so I got lucky...in a way...now I am in the process of tallying results and looking for patterns in the open ended questions. I have about 80 left to tally and then it's on to the results and conclusion sections of my research paper. Wish me luck and keep checking back I plan to post my lit review to the blog in the next few days.
Thanks for stopping by!
Thanks for stopping by!
Tuesday, March 24, 2009
The horses leave the gate
I have been approved...ok well my research project has been anyway!
Download the original attachment
TO: Peggy Jean Hayden
FROM: Institutional Review Board, Teri Rust, Chair
DATE: March 24, 2009
SUBJECT: IRB Proposal SS-09-15
Red Media/Blue Media: Media Consumption in a Divided Society
Thank you for your prompt response. You have met all the contingencies and are approved to go forward with your data collection.
If there are any adverse events during your project, please remember to complete and submit the appropriate form from the web site.
NEW!! After completing data collection and removing any identifying information you may have connected with the data, please go to www.lcsc.edu/irb and complete the Modification/Completion Form. This is a new procedure to bring us into compliance with federal guidelines.
Happy data collection and analysis!
If you have any questions during your research, please feel free to contact me (trust@lcsc.edu or 208-792-2276) or the Board.
Thank you for taking the time and effort to protect the rights of your human participants.
Download the original attachment
TO: Peggy Jean Hayden
FROM: Institutional Review Board, Teri Rust, Chair
DATE: March 24, 2009
SUBJECT: IRB Proposal SS-09-15
Red Media/Blue Media: Media Consumption in a Divided Society
Thank you for your prompt response. You have met all the contingencies and are approved to go forward with your data collection.
If there are any adverse events during your project, please remember to complete and submit the appropriate form from the web site.
NEW!! After completing data collection and removing any identifying information you may have connected with the data, please go to www.lcsc.edu/irb and complete the Modification/Completion Form. This is a new procedure to bring us into compliance with federal guidelines.
Happy data collection and analysis!
If you have any questions during your research, please feel free to contact me (trust@lcsc.edu or 208-792-2276) or the Board.
Thank you for taking the time and effort to protect the rights of your human participants.
Wednesday, February 25, 2009
Making Progress
Well I have re-written the introduction to my paper and have completed and turned in my IRB. I just today received the final part of it that I had been waiting for and plan to turn in a hard copy of it tomorrow meaning that in the next 2 to 3 weeks I hope to get approval and move forward with my research. I will have about 3 weeks I believe in which to get as many surveys as possible completed and then about two and a half weeks to analyze and record the information in my paper. That will all be while I am finishing up with my three other classes and preparing to graduate. Little sleep, lots of caffeine and adrenaline will get me through. Keep an eye out for updates, I should be informing you of my progress a little more frequently soon.
As always thanks for looking in on me!
As always thanks for looking in on me!
Thursday, February 5, 2009
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
My IRB application is almost complete and I will be ready to submit it by the beginning of next week hopefully. I thought that I would post my paper on here as soon as I get my ap in for the perusal of any readers. This entire process is really interesting to me, I really like doing research and I am pretty good at writing papers, at least the grades I've received on every research paper I have written in college has received an A or B with one exception and it got a C, but we won't talk about that because I think I was robbed!!! Any how any readers comments about this as I go would not only be appreciated but welcomed and helpful. Thanks!
Thursday, January 29, 2009
Hello and Welcome
This blog has been created as part of my senior research project. My project is based on cognitive dissonance theory as it relates to media consumption. I will be posting my prospectus and the steps as I go. At this point I am tweaking my prospectus and plan to have it posted in the next few days. I will also be including a survey that I am using to do my research and will eventually post the results of my research when it is complete. In the end I will post my grade and a picture of me getting my degree. Along the way I may also post brainstorming sessions, rants, realizations and whatever else I find myself posting that is related to this project.
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